Electrical Information

: What Is a Forward Converter? Operation and Equations
2026/11/11
A forward converter is a circuit that converts a DC voltage while keeping the input and output electrically isolated. This article uses circuit diagrams and waveforms to explain: What a forward converter is How a forward converter works, its operating modes, its output voltage formula, and its simulation results What Is a Forward Converter? A forward converter is an isolated converter that can step voltage up or down. It consists of a MOSFET \(Q\), a transformer \(T\), a diode \(D_1\), a freewheeling diode \(D_2\), an inductor (choke) \(L_F\), and an output capacitor \(C_{OUT}\). The primary and secondary windings of transformer ...

: What Is a Flyback Converter? Operation and Equations
2026/11/10
A flyback converter is one way to convert a DC voltage while keeping the input and output electrically isolated. This article uses circuit diagrams and waveforms to explain the following topics. What a flyback converter is How a flyback converter differs from a buck-boost converter How a flyback converter works, its operating modes, its equations, and its simulation results What Is a Flyback Converter? A flyback converter is an isolated converter that can step voltage up or down. Isolated converters come in several types, including flyback converters and forward converters. Compared with other isolated converters, the flyback converter uses fewer ...

: What Is a Bleeder Resistor? Purpose and How to Calculate Its Value
2026/11/10
What does a bleeder resistor do at the output of a power supply? This article uses diagrams to explain: What a bleeder resistor is The main uses of a bleeder resistor How to calculate its resistance and power dissipation What Is a Bleeder Resistor? A bleeder resistor is connected in parallel with the smoothing circuit to provide a small load current. With no bleeder resistor connected, the power supply is at no load when the load current \(I_{OUT}\) is \(0{\mathrm{[A]}}\) and at light load when a small load current flows. A bleeder resistor is used to stabilize the output voltage ...

: X Capacitor Subclasses Explained: X1 and X2
2026/11/5
When researching X capacitors, you may come across the markings “X1” and “X2”. What is the difference between them? X1 and X2 identify the subclasses of X capacitors. This article uses diagrams to explain X capacitor subclasses and answer the following questions: What are X capacitor subclasses? What is the difference between X1 and X2 capacitors? Why does the test voltage decrease as capacitance increases? Can an X1 capacitor replace an X2 capacitor? What Are X Capacitor Subclasses? X capacitor subclasses are categories based on factors such as the peak pulse voltage expected in service. X capacitors are connected across ...

: What Is an X Capacitor? Function, Selection, and Safety
2026/11/5
When researching noise suppression in power supply circuits, you may come across a component called an X capacitor. Where is an X capacitor connected, and what does it do? This article uses diagrams to explain the following aspects of X capacitors in an easy-to-understand way: What X capacitors do How to select an X capacitor Electric shock precautions after unplugging the AC power plug What Is an X Capacitor? An X capacitor is a safety-rated capacitor connected across the AC supply lines to reduce noise. In a single-phase line-to-neutral supply, it is connected between line (L) and neutral (N). Its ...

: What Is a Y Capacitor? Classes, Leakage Current, and Safety Explained
2026/11/2
When researching noise suppression in power supply circuits, you may come across a component called a Y capacitor. This article uses diagrams to explain the following topics: What Y capacitors are and what they do Differences between subclasses Y1, Y2, and Y4 The relationship between capacitance and leakage current Electric shock precautions What Is a Y Capacitor? A Y capacitor is a capacitor connected between an AC power line—line (L) or neutral (N)—and ground (GND). Y capacitors help suppress common-mode noise. By providing a bypass path for high-frequency noise current, they can reduce the noise flowing back to the input ...

: Grounding and Earthing: The Difference Between Circuit Ground and Earth Ground
2026/11/2
When reading circuit diagrams, you will often see the symbol for ground (GND). Do you know what ground (GND) means? You may also encounter the closely related terms earth ground and earthing. What is the difference between circuit ground (GND) and earth ground? What types of ground (GND) and earthing are there? How do the circuit symbols for ground (GND) and earthing differ? This article uses diagrams to explain ground (GND) and earthing: their meanings, types, differences, and circuit symbols in a beginner-friendly way. Circuit Ground (GND) vs. Earth Ground In a circuit, ground (GND) refers to the reference potential ...

: Current Divider Rule: Formula, Derivation, and Examples
2026/10/16
When resistors are connected in parallel, how much current flows through each resistor? The rule that lets us calculate these currents from the ratio of the resistance values is the current divider rule. This article explains the current divider rule with diagrams, covering the following topics. What the current divider rule is Current divider formulas, their derivation, and worked examples The difference between the current divider rule and the voltage divider rule What Is the Current Divider Rule?] The current divider rule is used to calculate the current through each resistor in a parallel circuit. The diagram above shows resistors ...

: Voltage Divider Rule: Formula, Derivation, and Examples
2026/10/16
When resistors are connected in series, how many volts appear across each resistor? The rule that lets us calculate these voltages from the ratio of the resistance values is the voltage divider rule. This article explains the voltage divider rule with diagrams, covering the following topics. What the voltage divider rule is Voltage divider formulas, their derivation, and worked examples The difference between the voltage divider rule and the current divider formula What Is the Voltage Divider Rule? The voltage divider rule is a rule for calculating the voltage across each resistor when resistors are connected in series. The diagram ...

: What Is Battery Internal Resistance?
2026/10/15
When you connect a device to a battery, the battery voltage may drop. A key concept for understanding this behavior is the battery’s internal resistance. This article explains the following aspects of battery internal resistance using diagrams: The meaning of battery internal resistance \(r\) and its equivalent circuit The difference between electromotive force and terminal voltage, and the equation relating them How to read the terminal voltage–current graph Current and terminal voltage under open-circuit and short-circuit conditions What Is Battery Internal Resistance? A battery has a very small resistance \(r\) inside it. This resistance \(r\) is called internal resistance. As ...